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When it comes to nations supporting science in Africa, there is considerable variability in approach. Among high-income host countries, France had the most students from Africa in 2016 鈥?around 95,000 (nearly 50% in master鈥檚 courses and 8% in PhD programmes)12. And China is the fastest-growing destination for African students; according to Chinese ministry figures, it hosted around 62,000 in 2016, up from fewer than 2,000 in 2003 (see also Supplementary Information).

Since 1961, Sweden has provided long-term funding and mentoring to research groups at universities in low-income countries 鈥?mainly in Africa 鈥?in physics, chemistry and mathematics. Likewise, Norway has offered various scientific training programmes since 1970. Most notable is the Norwegian Partnership Programme for Global Academic Cooperation (NORPART), which from late 2017 replaced the Norwegian Quota Scholarship Scheme.

In 2018, NORPART awarded $650,000 to three of us (N.C.S, A.B. and A.A.) to establish a mutually beneficial educational exchange programme between the University of Oslo and Addis Ababa University. This will promote the exchange of ideas between faculty members at each institution, and provide training to 26 Ethiopian and 15 Norwegian MSc students over the next 5 years.

Indeed, a crucial lesson from the Scandinavian experience is the importance of sustained investment over many decades for promoting self-sustaining, high-quality education and research in Africa.

Institutions in wealthier countries can also have important roles in growing scientific capacity in Africa. But too few regularly commit financial resources to this, or encourage their faculty members to get involved. And between-country connections generally rely on existing ties between individuals. These can be fragile and subject to the conditions of the granting agencies. University staff in Africa who have no contacts at a university in Norway cannot apply for NORPART funding, for example.

To be fair, mentoring students who are far from their home countries is demanding. As well as often lacking experience in lab work, techniques in data analysis, writing research papers and so on, the students face cultural and language barriers. Most assistance programmes cover only an individual鈥檚 costs, not those of dependants. But many African graduate students are older than most of their classmates from high-income countries and have families to support. Students can opt to leave their families at home, but this brings its own challenges.

Incentivize faculty members in high-income countries. In our view, establishing more one-on-one mentorships for students with advisers from wealthier countries would most rapidly increase the rate at which science develops in Africa13.

Existing reward structures in academia favour individuals who win big grants and publish in the most prestigious journals. We think that such reward structures should adapt to meet the changing realities of a global society. Scientists who invest in international collaborations with African scientists and others from low-income countries could be given additional grants specifically for intensive mentoring, for instance. (Imagine how the rate of scientific development in Africa would change if every paper published by an African graduate student mentored by a researcher from a high-income country counted twice as much for tenure and promotion as a paper by a graduate student from the adviser鈥檚 own university.)

Support MSc and PhD students. Institutions in high-income countries that support graduate students from Africa should offer modified programmes designed to meet their needs. These could include peer-mentoring programmes, and budgeting for students to do an extra year or more courses to enable degree completion.

Support scientists in Africa. Universities across Africa need to attract and retain more qualified educators by improving working conditions. This would support all academic researchers, but especially those early in their careers. It is relatively easy to obtain a faculty job in many African countries because of the increase in the number of universities14. But pay for academic scientists is typically abysmal15. (For instance, the gross monthly salary for a new PhD holder at Addis Ababa University is less than $500, around the same as the monthly rent for a typical two-bedroom apartment nearby.) Also, the limited facilities and support for research in sub-Saharan Africa is dismaying for newly minted African PhDs13.

Many African PhD holders returning home after a stint abroad find it difficult 鈥?or impossible 鈥?to remain competitive in their field13, or to support a family on the salary provided. Instead, they opt for more lucrative work in the private sector or in international development. Others never return, contributing to Africa鈥檚 鈥榖rain drain鈥?sup>16,17.

To encourage African PhDs to stay in science in Africa, foundations and other granting bodies worldwide should offer more multi-year research grants that support both basic and applied research on the continent. Funding schemes, similar to those in China and some European countries, should be developed to incentivize African students trained in high-income countries to contribute to scientific development in their country of origin (see Nature 569, 325鈥?26; 2019).

Developing science in Africa will improve global political and economic stability. And research as a whole will be strengthened 鈥?by different ideas born of different challenges and experiences 鈥?if many more African scientists become key members of the global scientific community.

Ultimately, it must be Africans themselves who drive the transition towards a stronger Africa. Wealthy African entrepreneurs could help with this. Governments across the continent must bring their own money to higher education and research. But improving Africa鈥檚 higher-education and research capacity will also require considerable spending by 鈥?and structural change in 鈥?the academic and financial institutions of richer nations. Most importantly, scientists working in high-income countries or emerging economies need to change the way they view, value and reward collaborations involving researchers from Africa. It is only by working together that sustainable top-level African universities will develop 鈥?institutions that are needed if we are to tackle the major global issues of our time.